A.
Introduction
There
are so many theories on learning TEFL methodology. What we can conclude it when
we learn something, some way of change has happened within us. Also, we know
that learning take place through life and although it often happens in a
society context, it is a highly individualized process; we all have different
learning style. Theories on language learning and teaching develop from the
area of psychology and linguistics. As we learn relevant elements of the
theories, methods and Techniques. The teacher will choose and work with
different kinds of materials, techniques and step that are work well for the
learner, pay attention of theory. In this chapter will be discussing.
B.
Approach, Methods, and Techniques
An
approach, according to Edward Anthony: 1963 in Brown: 2001, was a set of
assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching. An
approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of
language and language learning.
Theories
of native language are an account of the nature of language proficiency or an
account of the basic units of language structure. And then a theory of the
language learning are an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive
processes involved in language learning or an account of the conditions that
allows for the successful use of these processes. The interaction between one’s
approach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching. For example,
the best teachers are able to take calculate risks in the classroom: as a new
students needs are perceived innovating pedagogical techniques are attempted
and the follow up assessment yield an observed judgment on their effectiveness.
A
method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language
based upon a selected approach. Methods tend to be concerned prominent with
teacher, student roles, and behaviors and secondarily with such features as
linguistic and subject matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are
almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of contexts.
(Brown, 2001: 17)
Elements
and sub elements of methods (Richard and Rodgers 1986):
The general and
specific objectives of the method
There are seven kinds of
model (Brown:2001,18-32) first, the grammar translation model, second, Gouin
and the series method, third, the direct method, fourth, the audio lingual
method, fifth, Cognitive code learning, sixth, “designer” methods of the
spirited 1970s and seventh, beyond method: notional-functional syllabuses.
A syllabus model
Criteria for the
selection and organization of linguistic and/or subject-matter content in teaching
matter.
Type of learning
and teaching activities
Kinds of tasks and
practice activities to be employed in the classroom and in materials.
Learner roles
Type of learning tasks set for learners. The degree of
control learners have over the content of learning. Patterns of learner
grouping that are recommended or implied. Degree to which learners influence
the learning of other. The view of the learner as processor, performer,
initiator, problem solver, etc.
Teacher roles
Type of functions teachers fulfill, degree of teacher
influence over learning, degree to which teacher determines the content of
learning, type of interaction between teacher and learners.
The role of
instructional materials
Primary function of materials, the form materials take
(e.g., textbook, audiovisual) relation of materials to other input, assumption
made about teachers and other learners.
Á The Grammar Translation Model
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and
Latin. The approach was generalized for teaching other languages. Classes are
taught in the students' mother tongue (L1), with little active use of the
target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.
Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction
provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the
form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the
course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are
treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are
exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into
the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to
pronunciation.
Á Gouin and The Series Method
Language teaching helps us to set the
stage for the development of language teaching methods for the century.
Language learning is primarily a matter transforming perception into
conceptions. Children use language to represent their conception. Language is
means of thinking, of representing the world to oneself. Devising a teaching
method that would follow from these insights. And thus the Series Method was
created, a method that taught learners directly (without translation) and
conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations’) a ”series” of
connected sentences that are easy to perceive.
Á The Direct Method
The direct method, sometimes also called natural method,
is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just
uses the target language. The direct method operates on the idea that second
language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is
the natural way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another
language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not
necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on
correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates
teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language
teaching.
Á The Audio - Lingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior
psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct
Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills.
The audio-lingual method has students listen to or view
recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a
variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language
at all times. New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the
principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters
dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning.
Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught
using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided;
grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking,
reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and
learned in context.
Á Cognitive Code Learning
Cognitive
code learning was not so much method as it was an approach that emphasized
consciousness awareness of rules and their application to second language.
Á “Designer” Methods of the Spirited 1970s
1. Community Language Learning (CLL)
CLL is a classic
example of an affectively based method. Counseling-learning model of education
was extended to language learning context in the form of Community Language
Learning (CLL). CLL reflected not only the principle of Carl Rogers’s view of education,
but also basic principle of the dynamics of counseling in which the counselor,
through careful attention to the client’s need, aids the clients in moving from
dependence and helplessness to independence and self –assurance.
2. Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by
Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology.
The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field
of foreign language learning. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can
teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional
methods.
The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion”
and “pedagogy.” Recent developments,
Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies working with relaxation. Mainly
based on the discovery of the mirror neurons Ludger Schiffler (2003) has
developed the inter hemispheric foreign language learning, using gestures and
the mental visualization of the gestures during the relaxation period.
3. The Silent Way
This method created by Caleb Gattegno (1972) begins by
using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the
following:
À
To avoid the use of
the vernacular.
À
To create simple
linguistic situations that remains under the complete control of the teacher.
À
To pass on to the
learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the
objects shown or the actions performed.
À
To let the teacher
concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their
attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words.
À
To generate a
serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by
giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime.
À
To permit almost
from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign
language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch,
timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and
hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of
the sounds.
À
To provide the
support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises
mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already
developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue.
À
To provide a
duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work
to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic
integrative schemata from the start.
À
Teaching is
subordinate to learning and the teacher always starts from the point of where
the students are, not what he/she wants to teach.
À
Materials.
The complete set of materials utilized as the language
learning progresses include: A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts
containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional
ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded
phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a
set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories,
worksheets.
4. Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR stands for Total Physical Response and was created by
Dr. James J Asher.
It is based upon the way that children learn their mother
tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations' with their children, the
parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The parent says,
"Look at mummy" or "Give me the ball" and the child does
so. These conversations continue for many months before the child actually
starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this time, the child
is taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns. Eventually when
it has decoded enough, the child reproduces the language quite spontaneously.
TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the language classroom.
5. The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share
a common theoretical and philosophical base. Developed by Stephen Krashen
and Tracy Terrel and focuses on language input and communication.
Á Beyond method: Notional-Functional Syllabuses.
The following functions are covered in the first
several lessons of an advance beginner’s textbook:
a. Introducing self and other people
b. Exchanging personal information
c. Asking how to spell someone’s name
d. Giving commands
e. Apologizing and thanking
f.
Identifying and
describing people
g. Asking for information
Classroom techniques, practices, and
behaviors observed when the method is used: resources in term of time, space
and equipment used by the teacher. Interactional pattern observed in lessons.
Tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being
used.
C.
Comments
The chapter comes up with Approach,
Methods and Techniques that teachers generally can use. It supports with examples and the ways how to solve the
problems from various experiences. Although the definition of some terms is brief, it clears enough to describe in the terms. In general,
the writer finds that this chapter is worth reading some kinds of methods that
teacher in facing the life term.
D.
Conclussion
As we learn relevant elements of the theories for learning TEFL
methodology and methodology necessary to become a language teacher, each one of
us will come to the realization that the combination of theoretical preparation
and teaching experience is the key element that will produce a good English
language teacher. The teacher will choose and work with whatever materials,
techniques and steps that work well for the learner, regardless of the theory
of learning. In other words, as teachers may apply the different theories of
learning, they need to keep awareness that these theories are subjective by
their own nature.
E.
Bibliography
Brown, H.Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2007a. The Practice
of English Language Teaching. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited.
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