Name : Rezki
Firdaus
Student’s ID : 1407335
Topic : Summary; Fundamental
Concept: Theories, Methods, and Techniques
Date : September 23rd , 2014
A.
Introduction
There are so many theories on learning TEFL methodology. What we can
conclude it when we learn something, some way of change has happened within us.
Also, we know that learning take place through life and although it often happens
in a society context, it is a highly individualized process; we all have
different learning style. Theories on language learning and teaching develop
from the area of psychology and linguistics. As we learn relevant elements of
the theories, methods and Techniques. The teacher will choose and work with
different kinds of materials, techniques and step that are work well for the
learner, pay attention of theory. In this chapter will be discussing .
B.
Approach, Methods, and Techniques
An approach, according to Edward Anthony: 1963 in Brown: 2001, was a
set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching. An
approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of
language and language learning.
Theories of native language are an account of the nature of language
proficiency or an account of the basic units of language structure. And then a theory
of the language learning are an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive
processes involved in language learning or an account of the conditions that
allows for the successful use of these processes. The interaction between one’s
approach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching. For example,
the best teachers are able to take calculate risks in the classroom: as a new
students needs are perceived innovating pedagogical techniques are attempted
and the follow up assessment yield an observed judgment on their effectiveness.
A method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation
of language based upon a selected approach. Methods tend to be concerned
prominent with teacher, student roles, and behaviors and secondarily with such
features as linguistic and subject matter objectives, sequencing, and
materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a
variety of contexts. (Brown, 2001: 17)
Elements and sub elements of methods (Richard and Rodgers 1986):
The
general and specific objectives of the method
There are seven
kinds of model (Brown: 2001,18-32) first, the grammar translation model, second,
Gouin and the series method, third, the direct method, fourth , the audio lingual
method, fifth, Cognitive code learning, sixth, “designer” methods of the
spirited 1970s and seventh, beyond method: notional-functional syllabuses.
A
syllabus model
Criteria for
the selection and organization of linguistic and/or subject-matter content in teaching
matter.
Type
of learning and teaching activities
Learner
roles
Type of learning tasks set for learners.
The degree of control learners have over the content of learning. Patterns of
learner grouping that are recommended or implied. Degree to which learners
influence the learning of other . The view of the learner as processor,
performer, initiator, problem solver, etc.
Teacher
roles
The
role of instructional materials
Á The Grammar Translation Model
This approach was historically used in
teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized for teaching other
languages. Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue (L1), with little
active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated
word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar
instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often
focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is
begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of
texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only
drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is
given to pronunciation.
Á Gouin and The Series Method
Language teaching helps us to
set the stage for the development of language teaching methods for the century.
Language learning is primarily a matter transforming perception into
conceptions. Children use language to represent their conception. Language is
means of thinking, of representing the world to oneself. Devising a teaching
method that would follow from these insights. And thus the Series Method was
created, a method that taught learners directly (without translation) and
conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations’) a ”series” of
connected sentences that are easy to perceive.
Á The Direct Method
The direct method, sometimes also called
natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners' native
language and just uses the target language. The direct method operates on the
idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language
learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language - a child never
relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother
tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great
stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset . It
advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of
language teaching.
Á The Audio - Lingual Method
This method is based on the principles of
behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the
Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills.
The audio-lingual method has students listen
to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students
practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the
target language at all times. New material is presented in the form of a
dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation , the
method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and
over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural
patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical
explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced:
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is
strictly limited and learned in context.
Á Cognitive Code Learning
Cognitive code learning was not so much method as it was an approach
that emphasized consciousness awareness of rules and their application to
second language.
Á “Designer” Methods of the Spirited 1970s
1. Community Language Learning (CLL)
CLL is a
classic example of an affectively based method. Counseling-learning model of
education was extended to language learning context in the form of Community
Language Learning (CLL). CLL reflected not only the principle of Carl Rogers’s
view of education, but also basic principle of the dynamics of counseling in
which the counselor, through careful attention to the client’s need, aids the
clients in moving from dependence and helplessness to independence and self
–assurance.
2. Suggestopedia
The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion”
and “pedagogy.” Recent developments,
Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies working with relaxation. Mainly
based on the discovery of the mirror neurons Ludger Schiffler (2003) has
developed the inter hemispheric foreign language learning, using gestures and
the mental visualization of the gestures during the relaxation period.
3. The Silent Way
This method created by Caleb Gattegno (1972) begins by
using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the
following:
À
To avoid
the use of the vernacular.
À
To create
simple linguistic situations that remains under the complete control of the
teacher.
À
To pass
on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of
the objects shown or the actions performed.
À
To let
the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it,
drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of
words.
À
To
generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed
upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime .
À
To permit
almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the
foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of
pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice
and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand
of the sounds.
À
To
provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what
the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience
already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue.
À
To
provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the
students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus
providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
À
Teaching
is subordinate to learning and the teacher always starts from the point of
where the students are, not what he/she wants to teach.
À
Materials.
The complete set of materials utilized as the language
learning progresses include: A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts
containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional
ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded
phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a
set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories,
worksheets.
4. Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR stands for Total Physical Response and was created by
Dr. James J Asher.
It is based upon the way that children learn their mother
tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations' with their children, the
parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The parent says,
"Look at mummy " or "Give me the ball" and the child does
so. These conversations continue for many months before the child actually
starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this time, the child
is taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns. Eventually when
it has decoded enough, the child reproduces the language quite spontaneously.
TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the language classroom.
5. The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share
a common theoretical and philosophical base. Developed by Stephen Krashen
and Tracy Terrel and focuses on language input and communication.
Á Beyond method: Notional-Functional
Syllabuses.
The following functions are covered in the
first several lessons of an advance beginner’s textbook:
a. Introducing self and other people
b. Exchanging personal information
c. Asking how to spell someone’s name
d. Giving commands
e. Apologizing and thanking
f. Identifying and describing people
g. Asking for information
Classroom techniques,
practices, and behaviors observed when the method is used: resources in term of
time, space and equipment used by the teacher. Interactional pattern observed
in lessons. Tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method
is being used.
C.
Comments
The chapter comes up with Approach,
Methods and Techniques that teachers generally can use. It supports with examples and the ways how to solve the
problems from various experiences. Although the
definition of some terms is brief, it clears enough to describe in the terms. In general,
the writer finds that this chapter is worth reading some kinds of methods that
teacher in facing the life term.
D.
Conclussion
As we learn relevant elements of the
theories for learning TEFL methodology and methodology necessary to become a
language teacher, each one of us will come to the realization that the
combination of theoretical preparation and teaching experience is the key
element that will produce a good English language teacher. The teacher will
choose and work with whatever materials, techniques and steps that work well
for the learner, regardless of the theory of learning. In other words, as
teachers may apply the different theories of learning, they need to keep
awareness that these theories are subjective by their own nature.
E.
Bibliography
Brown,
H. Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice
Hall.
Harmer, Jeremy. 2007a. The Practice
of English Language Teaching. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited.
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