An Essay of Reading Report CHAPTER 10; THE TRANSLATION OF METHAPORS

An Essay of Reading Report

CHAPTER 10; THE TRANSLATION OF METHAPORS

PETER NEWMARK (1988): A Textbook of Translation

Translation in English Language Teaching lectured by

DR. H. ODO FADLOELI, M.A

Date: March 19, 2015

Written by:

Rezki Firdaus / 1407335

SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

March 2015

Table of Contents

Cover .................................................................................................................................   1

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................   2

A.            Introduction..............................................................................................................   3

The Importance of the Topic and Aspect Covered...............................................   3

Position of the Reading Report of the Topic.........................................................   3

B.            Definition..................................................................................................................   3

C.            Types of Metaphors.................................................................................................   5

Dead Metaphors.......................................................................................................   5

Cliche Metaphors.....................................................................................................   5

Stock or Standard Metaphors................................................................................   6

Adapted Metaphors.................................................................................................   7

Recent Metaphors....................................................................................................   7

Original Metaphors.................................................................................................   7

D.            Examples of Metaphors...........................................................................................   8

E.            Summary..................................................................................................................   9

F.             Comment..................................................................................................................   9

G.            Conclusion of the Reading Report.........................................................................   9

H.            Bibliography.............................................................................................................   9

A.           INTRODUCTION

This chapter report is intended to summarize the ideas or opinions on translation stated by experts such as Peter Newmark, Tetyana Oliynyk, Susan Bassnet, Sharmini Abdullah, Mark Shuttleworth, Therese Waldau, Kim Ebensgaard Jensen and any other expert that related to the material or resources of translation theories in translation of metaphors.

Translated work, to some extent, needs fluency criteria which can be accessed by readers, critics, reviewers, professionals, publishing house owners, etc. in at their target society (which extent is Lawrence Venuti’s Foreignizing Approach to Translation is Estranging?, Available at http://translationtheories.blogspot.com. Accessed on Saturday, March 14, 2015 at 21.07). Other criterias such as difference, relevance will be taken at a glance in this paper.

This report, as the title shows, discusses translation of metaphors from the point of view which based on the definition, type of metaphor and some general example of metaphors.

This paper is organized into: Introduction (Part A), focuses some term of definition theories in the translation of metaphors and aspect covered in the report as well as position of the chapter report (Part B), types of metaphor; dead, cliche, stock, adapted, recent and original metaphors (Part C), some examples of metaphors (Part D), deals with opinion on the material, conclusion, contains overal review of the topic (Part E, F, G). Readers may support themselves with further readings suggested in the Bibliography part.

The Importance and Aspects Covered in the Topic

This topic will hopefully be a kind of importance for researcher of TEFL as alternate  means of reference in the field of translation. The aspects covered in the topic are theoretical ones that contain relevant written resources about translation of metaphors theories.

                                                                                                       

The Position of the Reading Report of the Topic

This chapter report positions itself as an analysis toward the topic as well as review of the material about the translation of metaphor theories. The theories of the translation metaphors discussed in the chapter are mostly taken from modern approaches to translation which have great influence on translation studies since the second half of twentieth century.

B.            DEFINITION

In language metaphor is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subject that typically uses “is a” to join the subject. And this definition of metaphor “An expression that describes a person or object by refering to something that is considered to possess similar characteristics”. A metaphor is sometimes further analyzed in terms of its ground and tension. The ground consist of the similarities between the tenor and the vehicle. The tension consists of the dis dissimilarities between the tenor and the vehicle. The corresponding terms to tenor and vehicle in Lakoffs terminology are target and source. Newmark defined metaphor as any figurative expression: it can be a word used in its figurative sense (for example, the naître in a figurative sense call forth); personification of abstract concepts (e.g., modesty forbids me — скромність не дозволяє мені), etc. Glucksberg (2001) in Waldau (2010: p.2), state that  “examining how spoken and written language is portrayed figuratively in different types of text. In this context, he claims that figurative language has the same kind of linguistic and pragmatic operations as regular literal language, and that it therefore should been treated equivalently. Metaphor being a major topic of his work, he puts forward the theory that metaphors create new concepts in the original meaning of a word, and that a word’s meaning extends into a wider spectrum than originally intended when a metaphorical expression is used”.

Structurally metaphors are devided into simple that are represented by a single lexical unit, and compound or common, which may be represented by a word – group, a phrase, a sentence or a whole text.

A metaphor is sometimes confused with a simile which compares two subjects using “like” or “as”. An example of simile would be: “He was as sly as a fox”. While a metaphor would be “He was a fox”. More generally, a metaphor casts a first subject (tenor) as being equal to a second subject (vehicle) in some way. Thus, the first subject can be economically described thanks to the implicit and explicit attributes of the second.

In terms of functionality, Newmark distinguished two functions of metaphors: connotative and aesthetic. The connotative function refers to the ability of metaphor to describe both concrete and abstract concepts in more detail, express thoughts vividly and characterize the quality of the described object. The aesthetic function refers to the ability of a metaphor to provide the aesthetic impact on the reader, to interest and surprise him. The scholar noted that these two functions are combined in a metaphor: the unity of form and content, cognitive and aesthetic functions. Newmark believed that you should not include the ability of a metaphor to transfer properties from one object to another to its function. It must be mentioned that the consequence of the used metaphor may be the fact that the recipient would notice the similarity between the image and the object, but it is only the result of this usage, not its primary objective.

Another important point, according to Newmark, is to understand what amount of the semantic component of metaphors should be rendered in translation. Semantic component of any metaphor is at the intersection of the fields of imagery and semantics of the described entity. When translating metaphors a translator should: a) identify the cause of comparison (to evaluate positive or negative coloring of the sense in this semantic area, b) to understand whether a given area is connotative or denotative.

Consider the following example given in the manual: Kissinger: A TV portrait featuring a Metternich of today [1, p.105]. It is not clear enough how Clemens Metternich is characterized in this sentence. Consequently, it is not clear which of his achievements and qualities can be projected on Kissinger. According to Newmark, the author could have in mind: a) Metternich’s career as a successful statesman in a European policy; b) such feature of his character as a cunning, he was an influential statesman (negative connotation); c) that he was a shrewd politician (positive connotation); d) the identity of Metternich as a power-hungry politician. In this case Newmark spoke about three ways of a translator’s decision: a) to use a literal (word-for-word) translation, in the expectation that the reader would be educated sufficiently to understand the metaphor without an interpreter; b) to offer the most logical interpretation of a metaphor, for example, a politician with shrewdness of Metternich; c) to ignore the image of Metternich in general, if the reader is not familiar with this person at all, a skillful politician. As it can be seen from the above mentioned example, the translator must be guided primarily by what the audience is aimed to translate the text for.

C.           TYPES OF METAPHOR

Rhetorical theorists and other scholars of language have discussed numerous dimensions of metaphors, though these nomenclatures are by no means universal nor necessarily mutually exclusive. Newmark distinguished six types of metaphors: dead, cliché, stock, adapted, recent and original.

C 1.   Dead Metaphors

Dead metaphors are metaphors without figurative meaning. Dead metaphors often used when describing the time and space, geographical objects and activities of people. Metaphors are often words that distinguish parts of the body, natural phenomena, and abstract astronomical concepts. For example, such English words as field, top, foot, mouth, arm, fall, rise etc. As a rule, the translator rarely has difficulty translating dead metaphors, but the problem is that it is not always possible to translate these metaphors literally. A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is no longer present. Example: “he grasped the concept” or “I didn’t catch your name”. Both of these phrases use a physical action as a metaphor for understanding (itself a metaphor), but in none of these cases do most speakers of English actually visualize the physical action. Dead metaphors, by definition, normally go unnoticed.

Some people make a distinction between a dead metaphor whose origin most speakers are entirely unaware of (such as “to understand” meaning to stand underneath a concept), and a dormant metaphor, whose metaphorical character people are aware of but rarely think about (such as “to break the ice”). Others, however, use the latter as a way of describing metaphorical cliché.

So a dead metaphor is a metaphor that through overuse has lost figurative value. Other examples of dead metaphors are:

            “run out of time“.

            “ foot of a hill.”

   “branches of government.”

Dead metaphors, whose images are highly unmarked, e.g. the mouth of the river, the foot of the hill. While the strategies for translating dead metaphors are not especially problematical, literal on its often not possible. When translating dead metaphors we should be guided by the principles of lexical combinability in the target language, i.e. dead metaphors of the original language should correspond equivalent dead metaphors of the target language. The image, which metaphor is based on, may be different in different languages. But dead metaphor is a very specific, and "imagery" it completely faded; only semantic meaning is rendered.

C 2.   Cliche Metaphors

In vocative texts, cliche metaphors should be upsheld in the target text. Only in informative texts, they should be reduced to sense or replaved with a more credible stock metaphor. Cliche metaphors, which refer to the use of cliche expression in text, e.g. Achilles’ heel.

Metaphors-clichés (according to Newmark) are metaphors that lost their aesthetic sense and are used only in connotative function, in order to express thoughts more clearly often with a larger share of emotions. Let us analyze the example from the textbook: The County School will in effect become not a backwater but a breakthrough in educational development which will set trends for the future. In this its traditions will help and it may well become a jewel in the crown of the county's education [1, p.107]. This passage was taken, as the Newmark pointed, from hypocritical editorial article, the aim of which was to draw the reader's attention. Therefore, in the target text a translator must convey the whole set of the clichés used by the author, whatever "strange" they may seem: застій, прорив, дасть напрям, традиції, діамант в короні сільської освіти. Newmark noted that the translator should act correspondingly when translating any authorial speech or a political declaration.

However, Newmark believed that in anonymous text a translator should avoid literal translation of metaphorsclichés. In this case a translator must either remove all imagery of the translated metaphors or offer less figurative metaphor. For example, when translating frequently used English expression at the end of the day we should use Ukrainian насамкінець, в результаті. However, the choice is made in favor of expressive means in the target language, as it will have a greater impact on the reader: not in a month of Sundays, — in this case it would be possible to translate as коли рак на вербі свисне.

C 3.   Stock or Standard Metaphors

Stock or Standard metaphors define as established metaphors not deadened by overuse. Example: The “body” of a car. For the translation of stock or standard metaphors, the SL image should be legitimately reproduced in the TL but the metonyms used may be transferred as long as the substitutes have the same connotations as in the SL. Stock metaphors may also be reduced to sense or literal language.

Newmark noted that the field of stock metaphors and metaphors-clichés overlap. Stock metaphors are metaphors which are effective means of describing concrete or abstract concepts, which has an emotional impact on the reader and unlike dead metaphors have active aesthetic function. The translation of these metaphors can sometimes cause some difficulties for the translator, because the metaphor may be outdated (like the English expression it's raining cats and dogs) or be used only by members of a particular social class or age. Newmark said that he personally would not use such metaphors as he's a man of good appearance (obsolete) or he's on the eve of getting married. Also in Ukrainian — капелюшне знайомство (nodding acquaintance) is not used everywhere, nowadays this expression gradually become obsolete, and few even know what it is. The ideal solution would be to pick up the equivalent metaphor with a similar image in the target language: for example, to keep the pot boiling — one of the meanings is заробляти на хліб (to earn one’s bread) or to throw light on — пролити світло на щось (to shed light on anything). This method is the best for simple metaphors. It can be hardly applied to translation of compound metaphors.

Symbols and allusions in the translation should be rendered unchanged, with the proviso that the rendered image is correctly and fully understood by a native speaker. According to Newmark, the connotation of images of animals is often the same in different languages. Sometimes, however, you should be careful, as for example, the dragon in the East — a sacred worshiped creature, while in the West for centuries dragon is considered to be a killer and cause of all troubles and misfortunes. Sometimes the translation of proverbs and sayings images can also be the same: for example, all that glitters isn't gold — не все те золото, що блистить. But it is not always possible to choose a metaphor that would have been created using a similar image. For example, the English expression that upset the applecart could be translated as це зруйнувало наші плани (it upset all (our) plans) or це спутало всі карти (it has confused all the cards). As it can be seen from the above mentioned example, the images of the original metaphor and the target metaphor are not the same, but the overall meaning and emotional impact of the translation coincide. When metaphors are based on similar images, the level of equivalence in translation is greatly increased. For example, the expression he has all the cards — унього всі козирі в руках (he has the trumps in his hands). The only difference is that the metaphor in translation may be stronger or, conversely, weaker (in Ukrainian the image of trump card is used which is not exactly equivalent to the English word card).

C 4.   Adapted Metaphors

Newmark considered adapted metaphors to be author’s metaphorical occasionalisms. While translating these structures he suggested adapting metaphor in the target language according to a native speaker of the translation. For example, it eliminates the possibility of a literal translation in such cases, because Reagan's speech, translated literally, would not be clear to any of the speakers of other languages. In the process of translation of such metaphors the translator should strive to preserve the shape and the content. Nevertheless, when it is impossible, we should prioritize the latter (especially when we deal with journalistic text).

Adapted metaphors, where the ‘fixeddness’ of a stock metaphor has been adapted or personalised in some way. Adapted metaphor should be translated using equivalent adapted metaphors or reduced to sense.

C 5.   Recent Metaphors

Newmark considered recent metaphors as metaphorical neologisms, many of which are "anonymous" and is widely spread in the original language. E.g.: with it / in it in the meaning of fashionable, pissed in the meaning of drunk. Some metaphorical neologisms represent new concept. While their rendering should be guided by principle of the translation of neologisms: walkman — descriptive translation of portable player or head-hunter, penetrated into the Ukrainian language as a calque headhunter (a recruitment specialist).

Recent methapors where an anonymous metaphorical neologism has become generally used in the source language (download). Recent metaphors should be translated using componential analysis.

C 6.   Original Metaphors

Original Methapors which are cerated by the writer or speaker usually to make discourse more interesting and often used to highlight particular points or as reiteration. In vocative texts, original metaphor should be translated literally. If the metaphor is obsecure and of little importance to the text, it should be replaced with a descriptive metaphor or reduced to sense. In informative texts, consideration should be given to the number and variety of original metaphors in the text as a whole and decision be taken between literal translation, reduction to sense or modification of the metaphor.

Newmark considered to original metaphors to be individual author’s metaphors used by the author individually and are not common in everyday usage. Newmark believed that author’s metaphors should be rendered as close as possible to the original, because: a) the author's metaphor manifests individual style and personality of the author and b) the author's metaphors contribute to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the target language. Thus, he recommended translate author’s metaphors almost verbatim. Nevertheless, if the translator thinks the metaphor contains cultural elements that may be unclear to the recipient, the translation should be adapted to the reader by replacing the unknown image on the image which is familiar to the recipient. E.g., the metaphor Oxford, a place of Lyonnesse. Lyonesse, according to legend, is a country located west of the peninsula of Cornwall, now flooded by the sea. For English-language recipient this realia can be quite recognizable (especially taking into account the fact that this country is mentioned in The Legend of Tristan and Isolda). When translating into Ukrainian Lyonesse could be replaced by Atlantis, which, in our opinion, would help to understand the translated text better.

D.           EXAMPLES OF METAPHORS

Family Metaphor:

Brother 1         : “Hi, Bro” Shared culture makes for kin.

Brother 2         : Brother Paul said his prayers. Shared religion makes for kin.

Sister 1            : The company had a sister factory in Trenton. Similar purpose makes for kin.

Mother 1         : “Necessity is the mother of invention.” Invention is a (brain) child.

Infant              : The Iraq democracy is in its infancy. Life begins after one is born.

Computer metaphors:

Window          : A program exists in an outside space.

Desktop           : A visual surface is a physical surface.

Open/Close     : Windows, programs and ports may be opened or closed.

File                  : Data is physical and discrete, occupying space.

Folder              : A folder may have any number of files within. Files are objects that can be                        grouped.

Space               : Data takes up physical space.

Port                 : Data transfers on a liquid.

Tools               : Data is physically altered by a program.

Cooking metaphors:

Grill                 : The lawyer grilled the witness on the stand. Tough questions create a                                 damaging level of heat.

Fry                   : She knew she was fried when the teacher handed back her paper. Like grill,                       this involves higher temperatures.

Recipe             : A recipe for disaster. A disaster is the finished product of bad ingredients and                    processes.

Raw                 : She had a raw talent for music. Talent is only potential, and must be                                   developed (cooked).

E.            SUMMARY

So, advocated maintaining the maximum of the original form of the author’s metaphor, but at the same time he/she agreed that excessive adherence to the original can bring the imbalance in the overall style of the text. According to him/her, the choice of the way of translation depends upon the type of text under translation, the number of individual author’s metaphors used in the text, and the translator’s decision to use figurative speech in the translated text or not.

F.            COMMENT

The language use to elaborate the issue is rather “heavy” and not easily understood since it contains so many new terms. Some readers may find themselves necessary to read and reread the chapter to get better understanding.

G.           CONCLUSION OF THE READING REPORT

This chapter has summarized the translation of metaphors starting form the twentieth century to the present time, especially by taking a glance to the arguments proposed by Peter Newmark, Tetyana Oliynyk, Susan Bassnet, Sharmini Abdullah, Mark Shuttleworth, Therese Waldau, Kim Ebensgaard Jensen and any other expert that related to the reading. Hopefully, it would meet the requirements of a reading report.

H.           BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abdullah, S. & Shuttleworth, M. 2013. Methapors in the Translation of English Technical            Texts Into Malay: A Preliminary Study. Journal of Asian Scientific Research, 3 (6):      608 – 629.

Bassnet, Susan. 2005. Translation Studies Third Edition. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Jensen, E.K. 2008. Translation and Translation Theory. University of Aalborg.

Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. Hertsfordshire: Prentice Hall International            (UK) Ltd.

Oliynyk, O. 2014. Metaphor Translation Methods. International Journal of Applied Science         and Technology, 4 (1); p. 123 – 126.

Waldau, T. 2010. Metaphors and Translation: A Study of Figurative Language in the Works        of Astrid Lindgren. English Studies, Department of Humanities, Mid Sweden University, Sweden.

---------. Newmark and the Translation of Metaphors English Language Essay. Available at             www.ukessays.com/essays/english-language/newmark-and-the-translation-of-    metaphors-englishlanguage-essay.php accessed on March 5, 2015 at 17:01.

............  which extent is Lawrence Venuti’s Foreignizing Approach to Translation is Estranging? Available at http://translationtheories.blogspot.com. Accessed on Monday, March 14, 2015 at 21:07