THE FINAL EXAMINATION OF TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING COURSE

THE FINAL EXAMINATION OF

TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE COURSE

Submitted as the requirement to fullfill the Final Examination of Translation and English Language Teaching Course

Instructor by Dr. H. Odo Fadloeli, M.A.

Submitted by:

Rezki Firdaus / 1407335

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

2015

A.           Answer the questions elaborately

1.        Recount your chapter report.

2.        Define interpreting and translation.

3.        What is a text in a view of translation?

4.        What is denotation and connotation?

5.        Contrast textual level from referential level?

6.        How do you translate proper name?

7.        Mentions all language methods!

8.        Mentions all translation functions!

9.        What is coherent and cohesive?

10.    What is accepted translation?

11.    What is natural translation?

12.    What is transference?

13.    What is the role of componential analysis in translation?

14.    Defenie these terms:

!  Neologism

!  Acronym

!  Technical translation

!  Variety

!  Poetry

B.            Translate the text into English

Zaman Kegelapan Mesir

Mengapa mantan Presiden Mesir Muhammad Mursi dijatuhi hukuman mati, sedangkan mantan Presiden Hosni Mubarak hanya 3 tahun penjara? Pertanyaan itulah yang pertama muncul setelah mendengar berita dari Mesir perihal vonis hukuman yang dijatuhkan pengadilan kriminal di Kairo, Sabtu16/5 dan minggu 17/5. Dua mantan president dijatuhi hukuman dengan bobot hukuman yang sangat jauh berbeda. Meski Mursi dalam sidang pengadilan sebelumnya, untuk kasus yang berbeda, sudah dijatuhi hukuman 20 tahun penjara.

Mursi dijatuhi hukuman berat karena melarikan diri dari penjara Wadi Al-Natroum saat Mesir digulung revolusi. Di pengadilan dinyatakan bahwa Mursi melarikan diri dengan bantuan orang-orang Hamas. Karena itu pula, pengadilan juga menjatuhkan hukuman mati terhadap sekitar 70 orang Palestina (lebih dari 100 orang dijatuhi hukuman mati bersama Mursi). Meskipun vonis itu masih harus mendapatkan persetujuan dari Imam Besar, yang merupakan otoritas tertinggi Muslim Suni di Mesir.

Sementara itu Mubarak dan dua anaknyayang berkuasa selama 30 tahun di Mesir hanya dituduh korupsi. Kasus korupsi ini sering disebut kasus “istana presiden”. Dalma kasus itu, Mubarak dan kedua anak lelakinya dituduh telah mengkorup uang Negara senilai jutaan dolar AS. Karena itu mereka didenda 16,3 juta dolar AS dan mengembalikan 2,7 juta dolar AS, uang milik Negara.

 ANSWER:

1.             Recount your chapter report

My chapter report entitled The Translation of Metaphors. In language metaphor is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subject that typically uses “is a” to join the subject. And this definition of metaphor “An expression that describes a person or object by refering to something that is considered to possess similar characteristics”. A metaphor is sometimes further analyzed in terms of its ground and tension. Rhetorical theorists and other scholars of language have discussed numerous dimensions of metaphors, though these nomenclatures are by no means universal nor necessarily mutually exclusive. Newmark distinguished six types of metaphors: dead, cliché, stock, adapted, recent and original. Dead metaphors are metaphors without figurative meaning. Dead metaphors often used when describing the time and space, geographical objects and activities of people. Metaphors are often words that distinguish parts of the body, natural phenomena, and abstract astronomical concepts. In vocative texts, cliche metaphors should be upsheld in the target text. Only in informative texts, they should be reduced to sense or replaved with a more credible stock metaphor. Metaphors-clichés (according to Newmark) are metaphors that lost their aesthetic sense and are used only in connotative function, in order to express thoughts more clearly often with a larger share of emotions. Stock or Standard metaphors define as established metaphors not deadened by overuse. Example: The “body” of a car. For the translation of stock or standard metaphors, the SL image should be legitimately reproduced in the TL but the metonyms used may be transferred as long as the substitutes have the same connotations as in the SL. Stock metaphors may also be reduced to sense or literal language. Newmark considered adapted metaphors to be author’s metaphorical occasionalisms. While translating these structures he suggested adapting metaphor in the target language according to a native speaker of the translation. Newmark considered recent metaphors as metaphorical neologisms, many of which are "anonymous" and is widely spread in the original language. E.g.: with it / in it in the meaning of fashionable, pissed in the meaning of drunk. Original Methapors which are cerated by the writer or speaker usually to make discourse more interesting and often used to highlight particular points or as reiteration. In vocative texts, original metaphor should be translated literally. If the metaphor is obsecure and of little importance to the text, it should be replaced with a descriptive metaphor or reduced to sense. (See, (Newmark, 1988, pp. 110–113), (Bassnett, 2002), Jensen, 2008, (Waldau, 2010), (Sharmini & Shuttleworth, 2013), and Oliynyk, 2014).

2.             Define interpreting and translation.

Interpreting and translation are two closely related linguistic disciplines. Yet they are rarely performed by the same people. The difference in skills, training, aptitude and even language knowledge are so substantial that few people can do both successfully on a professional level. The interpreter translates orally (all about the spoken word, involved in projects that require live translation; for example conferences and business meetings, medical appointments and legal proceedings), while a translator interprets written text (written communication). Both interpreting and translation presuppose a certain love of language and deep knowledge of more than one language. An interpreter, on the other hand, must be able to translate in both directions on the spot, without using dictionaries or other supplemental reference materials. Interpreters must have extraordinary listening abilities, especially for simultaneous interpreting. Simultaneous interpreters need to process and memorize the words that the source-language speaker is saying now, while simultaneously outputting in the target language the translation of words the speaker said 5-10 seconds ago. Interpreters must also posess excellent public speaking skills and the intellectual capacity to instantly transform idioms, colloquialisms and other culturally-specific references into analogous statements the target audience will understand. Interpreting, just like translation, is fundamentally the art of paraphrasing—the interpreter listens to a speaker in one language, grasps the content of what is being said, and then paraphrases his or her understanding of the meaning using the tools of the target language (Chesterman, 2006). Interpretation sees translation as a highly suspect activity, one in which an inequality of power relations (inequalities of economics, politics, gender and geography) is reflected in the mechanics of textual production (Bassnett, 2002, p. 4).

3.             What is a text in a view of translation?

Texts is, as a rule, a difficult task, and it basically requires talent, patience, linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge (Tatu, 2011). Hence the translation was doomed to exist in a position of inferiority with regard to the source text from which it was seen to derive as stated by (Bassnett, 2002, p. 5). She continued that translation is not just the transfer of texts from one language into another, it is now rightly seen as a process of negotiation between texts and between cultures, a process during which all kinds of transactions take place mediated by the figure of the translator. (Waldau, 2010) state that a text should contain basically the same information as the original text, and it should have the same literary qualities as the original. Further, if the language used in the source language (SL) is of a more classy variety, the target language (TL) used should be on the same stylistic level, and if there is a lot of figurative language this should be transferred to the TL, Lindquist 1989: 67 in (Waldau, 2010). When translating a text one has to use some sense when it comes to choosing the right word in the target language. It would therefore be unusual if the translation would alter an expression so radically, bearing in mind that the meaning of the text still ought to be the same in the end.

4.             What is denotation and connotation?

Denotation is a word's literal meaning. For example, were Juliet to look up the word 'rose' in the dictionary, she would find something like, 'a bush or shrub that produces flowers, usually red, pink, white or yellow in color.' Similarly, street names, like Sistrunk Boulevard or Northeast Sixth Street, tell people where they are and help them get to where they want to go. (Retrived form “What Are Connotation and Denotation?,” n.d.)

Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition."¨ For example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles, Khaving a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions." (Retrived from “denotation & connotation.htm,” n.d.)

The literal meanings, the denotation, are direct, realistic, and often found in the dictionary. What the word suggests or implies, the connotation, is symbolic, culturally constructed, and often influences the interpretation of poetry or literature. For example, the denotations of the word snake might be "reptile," "scaly," or "without legs." Writers of nonfiction assume that the denotation of words will inform the meaning for readers. (Retrived from “Definition of Connotation Vs. Denotation _ Chegg.com.htm,” n.d.)

Denotation represents the explicit or referential meaning of a sign. Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition." For example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that one of its denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions or the name ‘Hollywood’ connotes such things as glitz, glamour, tinsel, celebrity, and dreams of stardom. In the same time, the name ‘Hollywood’ denotes an area of Los Angeles, worldwide known as the center of the American movie industry." Denotation is when you mean what you say, literally. In grammar, a word’s denotation is whatever the word directly refers to, roughly equivalent to its lexical definition. Thus, the word “atheist” denotes a person who disbelieves in or denies the existence of gods. (Retrived from http://www.csun.edu/~bashforth/098_PDF/06Sep15Connotation_Denotation.pdf; (Hatim & Munday, 2004, pp. 35, 161, 338–339))

Webster’s dictionary defines denotation nail as:

A horny sheath protecting the upper end of each of each finger and toe of man and most other primates. b) a structure (as a claw) that terminates a digit and coresponds to a nail a slender usu. Pointed and headed fastener designed to be pounded in an English unit of length equal to 1/16 yard (786). (Retrived from http://ctl.byu.edu/sites/default/files/docs/critical_reading_mini-lessons/48-Denotation_and_Connotation.pdf)

Denotation: The specific, exact and concrete meaning of a word. This is the meaning you would find in a dictionary. Scientists and philosophers focus on the denotations of words in order to communicate exact meaning. (Retrived from http://bowvalleycollege.ca/Documents/Learning%20Resource%20Services/Library%20Learning%20Commons/E-Resources/Study%20guides/writing%20deno_conno.pdf)

Connotation is a word's underlying meanings; it is all the stuff we associate with a word. So, while a rose is indeed a type of flower, we also associate roses with romantic love, beauty and even special days, like Valentine's Day or anniversaries. Connotations go beyond the literal to what we think and feel when we hear or see a word. (Retrived form “What Are Connotation and Denotation?,” n.d.)

Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger. (Retrived from “denotation & connotation.htm,” n.d.)

The connotation, is symbolic, culturally constructed, and often influences the interpretation of poetry or literature. Connotations of the word, however, might include "treachery," "evil," or "betrayal." Poets or fiction writers may instill meaning beyond the literal by using words with culturally rich connotations. (Retrived from “Definition of Connotation Vs. Denotation _ Chegg.com.htm,” n.d.)

Connotation: The attitudes, feelings and emotions aroused by a word. Writers of literature rely more heavily on connotation in order to evoke an emotional response in the reader. Words can have context-specific connotations that are not always obvious from their dictionary meaning. For example, the word elderly means “old” but it can only be applied to a person; no matter how old a house is, it would not be called “elderly.” Similarly, blonde means “yellow” but it refers only to hair and to some kinds of wood; it is never used to describe other yellow objects. It is important to be aware of this in order to avoid misusing words. (Retrived from http://bowvalleycollege.ca/Documents/Learning%20Resource%20Services/Library%20Learning%20Commons/E-Resources/Study%20guides/writing%20deno_conno.pdf)

The connotation are “accompanying baggage” a word caries with it and the context thrust upon it. Connotations always imply attitudes and are either positive or negative. The connotations of words help us determine how authors feel about what they’re describing. (Retrived from http://ctl.byu.edu/sites/default/files/docs/critical_reading_mini-lessons/48-Denotation_and_Connotation.pdf)

Connotation is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word. Under the rubric of teaching students about Pathos, or appeal to emotion, in the Aristotelian Pathos/Ethos/Logos triangle, she briefly described connotation as the emotional weight of a word, comparing cheap to inexpensive as an example. Connotation represents the various social overtones, cultural implications, or emotional meanings associated with a sign. Connotations can be both positive and negative; for example, lady carries a hint of both elegance and subservience. The influence of connotative meaning can also change the denotative meaning, one example being the thoroughly transformed word gay. Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for the word snake could include evil or danger. Connotation is created when you mean something else, something that might be initially hidden. The connotative meaning of a word is based on implication, or shared emotional association with a word. Greasy is a completely innocent word: Some things, like car engines, need to be greasy. But greasy contains negative associations for most people, whether they are talking about food or about people. Often there are many words that denote approximately the same thing, but their connotations are very different. Innocent and genuine both denote an absence of corruption, but the connotations of the two words are different: innocent is often associated with a lack of experience, whereas genuine is not. Connotations are important in poetry because poets use them to further develop or complicate a poem's meaning. A word’s connotation refers to any subtle nuances that might or might not be intended by its use. For example, one possible connotation for the word “atheist” might be someone who is immoral and wicked, depending upon who is doing the speaking or listening. A word’s connotations are intended is much more difficult to determine. Connotations are often emotional in nature, and thus if they are intended, it may be for the purpose of swaying a person’s emotional reactions rather than the logical evaluation of an argument. In the word’s connotations: people might be seeing something not intended or the speaker may be intending something people don’t see. In constructing our own arguments, it’s a good idea not merely to look at what our words denote, but also what they connote. Connotation is an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word evokes. The connotation of some words—or the attitudes we associate with them—can easily be seen when we examine pairs of words that are essentially similar in meaning, but different in the favorable or unfavorable attitudes they evoke in most people.  (Retrived from http://www.csun.edu/~bashforth/098_PDF/06Sep15Connotation_Denotation.pdf)

5.             Contrast textual level from referential level?

The Textual Level it involves the source text. At this level, we decode or render the syntactic structures of the source text into their correspondent structures in the target text. Sometimes you have to change these structures into something quite different in order to achieve the target language naturalness. The referential level operates on the content of the ST. It deals with the message or the meaning of the text. On this level you decode the meaning of the source text and build the conceptual representation. This is where you simplify polysemous words and phrases. On it you decode idioms and figurative expressions. This is where you figure out the pragmatic function of the source text. Once you have decoded the ST, you encode it into an appropriate target language expression.

The referential process is a set of functional stages proposed by Bucci (1997) that describe the general process of bringing nonverbal material, existing both outside of and within awareness, into a form that can be translated into language. The process is bidirectional, in that meaningful entities that are verbal in nature (such as words spoken by others or read) can be translated back to nonverbal form.

The referential process incorporates three major components or phases: arousal, symbolizing, and reorganizing. The three components often occur in order, though there may also be recurrences of them, especially the symbolizing and reorganizing phases. The components of the referential process are offered in this summary as elements of a sequential process. In practice, it is not expected that every stage necessarily occurs, nor do they always occur in order when they are present.

Although the referential process is a general cognitive model that can be applied to activities such as the development of creative ideas or problem-solving, it has proven to be a particularly helpful model in the investigation of the process of psychoanalysis and psychotherapy in general. Studies that have analyzed transcripts from psychotherapy sessions using referential activity measures have found that the three phases of the referential process are not only consistently identifiable in their different linguistic qualities, but serve as an indicator of how strongly a patient’s narrative is connected to emotional experience (Khan et al., 2010; Kingsley, 2010).

6.             How do you translate proper names!

There are many ways to translate proper names. These answer based on some researcher who conducted research in translation, as follows:

The first research was conducted by Pour (2009) retrived from (“How to Translate Proper Names.htm,” n.d.), who state that for translating proper nouns, different models are suggested. In this respect, seven models presented by Hervey and Higgins (1986), Newmark (1988), Theo Hermans (1988), Farzane Farahzad (1995), Anthony Pym (2004), Lincoln Fernandes (2006), and Heikki Särkkä (2007) will be defined here by Pour (2009) as follows:

        I.       Hervey and Higgins (1986) present these strategies for translating PNs :

        o            Exotism: The name should remain unchanged from the SL to the TL. In this method no cultural transposition is occurred (p.29).

        o            Transliteration: The name is shifted to conform to the phonic or graphic rules of the TL (p.29).

        o            Cultural transplantation: The SL name is replaced by the TL name that has the same cultural connotation as the original one (p.29).

      II.       Peter Newmark (1988b) holds that people's names should, as a rule, not be translated when their names have no connotation in the text (p.214). He adds some exceptions such as names of known saints, monarchs, and popes, which are known in the translated form in the TL (p.214).

Newmark (1988a) also recommends that, in communicative translation, a personal name, along with its connotation, should be translated where proper names are treated connotatively (p.151). In spite of that, the PNs must be transferred in semantic translation (p.151).

In addition, with regard to names that have connotations in the imaginative literature such as in comedies, allegories, fairy tales, and some children's stories, Newmark recommends that they be translated. He adds that the previous rule should be followed unless, like in folk tales, nationality is a significant aspect.

In cases where both nationality and connotation are significant aspects, the most appropriate method, in Newmark's opinion, is first to translate the name to the TL, then to naturalize the translated word into a new proper name provided that the personal name is not yet current among the educated readers of the TL (p.215).

   III.       Theo Hermans (1988) believes that there are at least four strategies for translation of names. He phrases them,

"They can be copied, i.e. reproduced in the target text exactly as they were in the source text. They can be transcribed, i.e. transliterated or adapted on the level of spelling, phonology, etc. A formally unrelated name can be substituted in the target text for any given name in the source text. And insofar as a name in a source text is enmeshed in the lexicon of that language and acquires 'meaning,' it can be translated" (p.13).

Hermans contends that some other alternatives are also possible, namely various combinations of the above methods, omitting the source text (ST) proper name in the target text (TT), substitution of a common name in the TT for the PN in the ST, the insertion of the PN in the TT while no PN exists in the ST (p.14).

     IV.     Farzanne Farahzad (1995) states that transliteration and transcription are used for translation of personal proper names. The latter is the replacement of one letter of the alphabet in the source language (SL) by another letter in the target language (TL). The former occurs when the letter of the target language shows the pronunciation of the PN in the source language (p.43).

She expounds that transcription suffers from the following defects:

              o    There are no established rules for transcription.

              o    The transcription of personal names varies on the basis of various accents such as American and British.

              o    The transcription may be influenced by the translator's pronunciation, which may lead to an incorrect transcription.

              o    The exact transcription of personal names is not always possible; that is, all languages do not have the same consonants or vowels.

              o    The pronunciation of personal names' transcription is more difficult than that of their translation (pp.43-44).

In view of the foregoing reasons, she concludes that transliteration is a better strategy to be used by translators (p.44).

     V.       Anthony Pym (2004) proposes that proper names not be translated (p.92).

He also defines the result of transliteration operations as 'absolute equivalence' in that it results in the exact quantitative equality between input and output (p.90). In his view, the most problematic aspect of 'absolute equivalence' is that it is often unacceptable equivalence, unless much language learning is involved. In this regard, Pym contends that alternatives are imperative (p.92).

   VI.       Lincoln Fernandes (2006) lists a set of ten procedures in the translation of personal names as follows:

              o    Rendition: When the in the ST is enmeshed in the TL, the meaning is rendered in the TL. For example, translating the word 'Lady' as 'Mulher,' which means 'woman' in Brazilian Portuguese, reveals that the translator has used a 'superordinate' (woman) instead of a hyponym of woman, a specific word such as 'senhora' or 'dama' (= lady).

              o    Copy: As a matter of fact, in this case, the name of the ST is exactly replicated in the TT—without any orthographic adjustment. As an illustration, Alice King is reproduced in the Arabic text—which has a different alphabet from English one-with no change.

              o    Transcription: This a method in which a name is transcribed in the equivalent characters of the TL. In order to keep the readability of the TT, some other changes such as addition or shift in the position of the letters may occur e.g. Ahoshta Tarkaan is changed to Achosta Tarcaã.

              o    Re-creation: A newly-created name in the ST is recreated in the TT so that it reproduces the similar effects in the TL such as Mr. Ollivander that is translated to Sr. Olivares.

              o    Substitution: A TL name replaces the SL name, although they are formally and/or semantically unrelated.

              o    Deletion: In this type of strategy, the name in the ST is, partially or totally, omitted in the TT.

              o    Addition: Extra information is added to the SL name so that it can be more understandable and desirable to the target readers. As a matter of fact, this method may also be used to remove ambiguities in the TT.

              o    Transposition: This is a change of one part of speech for another one without any shift in the meaning. In fact, this a way for translating titles that have transparent role in literature for identifying particular literary works. Because of this reason, this procedure is taken into consideration here.

              o    Phonological Replacement: In this procedure, the phonological features of the original name are imitated in the TL. In other words, a TL name, which has a similar sound to the SL name, replaces the original name.

              o    Conventionality: This strategy is defined as the acceptance of a typical translation of a name in the SL. In view of this case, it is interesting to know that conventionality is often used with historical or literary individuals as well as geographical names.

VII.       Heikki Särkkä (2007) reports that there are four strategies for translating PNs;

             o     They can be transported completely from the TL to the SL (allowance being made for possible transliteration or transcription, depending on the SL).

             o     They can be partly transported from the SL and partly translated.

             o     They can be replaced with more or less different names in the TL.

             o     They can be dispensed with altogether.

The second research was conducted by Ghadi (2010) retrived from (“Translation of Proper Names.htm,” n.d.) who stated that PNs can be treated in a number of ways in translation:

1.    They can be imported unchanged from the SL text;

2.    They can be modified to fit the phonological/graphological system of the TL. This, of course, is something that has or has not been done for the translator by his/her speech community in the case of conventional place names like Prague, the Hague, Rome etc.;

3.    They can be expanded with a gloss to make up for the TL reader's lack of world knowledge in the target culture;

4.    On occasion, they might be omitted altogether (perhaps replaced with a paraphrase) if considered peripheral in terms of the central message of the text or if retaining them would be more likely to cause the reader to pause in puzzlement. True, this would be more likely to happen in interpretation, but could not be ruled out altogether in translation, either;

5.    In rare cases, they might even be introduced in the TL text where, instead of a proper name, the SL text contains a cultural allusion unlikely to be understood by the TL reader.

The third research was conducted by (Jaleniauskienė & Čičelytė, 2009), who give the strategies for translating Proper Names. Thet were listed the seven startegies in translating proper names such as: preservation, addition, omission, globalization, localization, transformation and creation. First, preservation occurs when a translator transfers the term directly into the TT with no further explanation. Second strategy is addition, when a translator “decide[s] to keep the original item but supplement[s] the text with whatever information is judged necessary”. The opposite strategy to addition is omission, when translators decide, to omit a problematic CSI altogether, so that no trace of it is found in the Translation. Next strategy is globalization, “the process of replacing culture-specific references with the ones which are more neutral or general”. An opposite strategy to globalization is localization, when translators “try to anchor a reference firmly in the culture of the target audience”. The last Davies’s strategy is called creation and means a creation of a CSI which is firmly or totally different from the ST or is not present. This strategy is rarely used and often includes an idea of compensation; for example, a translator can omit puns or alliterations in one place and put them elsewhere.

The last research was done by (Aguilera, 2008) who establishes the following classification criteria:

ORTOGRAPHIC:

!  Proper names are capitalized.

MORPHOSYNTACTIC:

!  Proper names have no plural forms.

!  Proper names are used without articles.

!  Proper names do not accept restrictive modifiers.

REFERENTIAL:

!  Proper names refer to single unique individuals.

SEMANTIC:

!  Proper names do not impute any qualities to the objects designated and are therefore meaningless.

!  Proper names have a distinctive form of definition that includes a citation of their expression.

Theoretically speaking there appears to be at least four ways of transferring proper names from one language into another. They can be copied, i.e. reproduced in the target text exactly as they were in the source text. They can be transcribed, i.e. transliterated or adapted on the level of spelling, phonology, etc. A formally unrelated name can be substituted in the TT for any given name in the ST [...] and insofar as a proper name in the ST is enmeshed in the lexicon of that language and acquires ‘meaning’, it can be translated. Combinations of these four modes of transfer are possible, as a proper name may, for example, be copied or transcribed and in addition translated in a (translator’s) footnote. From the theoretical point of view, moreover, several other alternatives should be mentioned, two of which are perhaps more common than one might think: non-translation, i.e. the deletion of a source text proper name in the TT, and the replacement of a proper noun by a common noun (usually denoting a structurally functional attribute of the character in question). Other theoretical possibilities, like the insertion of the proper name in the TT where there is none in the ST, or the replacement of a ST common noun by a proper noun in the TT, may be regarded as less common, except perhaps in certain genres and contexts. Hermans talks about four basic strategies to use in the translation of proper names, all of which can be combined to produce new methods of transfer, considering as strategies the possibility of omitting the proper name in the translated text or incorporating it when there is none in the original text. It is, from our point of view, a classification that, despite being concise, includes all the possible options the translator may have.

7.             Mention all language functions!

Karl Buhler put forward three functions of language: (1) representational – referring to objects in the real world; (2) expressive – referring to the writer of the text; (3) conative – referring to the reader of the text. Jakobson took Buhler’s three functions but expanded on them to give us six linguistic functions: (1) referential – referring to objects in the real world; (2) expressive – referring to the writer of the text; (3) conative – referring to the reader of the text; (4) phatic – where the function of language is to establish, maintain, prolong or discontinue communication; (5) metalinguistic – referring to when the text is focused on the code itself; (6) poetic – when the text is focused on the message for its own sake. (Retrived from “Functions in Translation,” n.d.)

Taha (2005) (Retrived from http://www.moe.edu.kw/_layouts/Moe/Forms/schools-2/hawally/secondaryschools/boys/jaber%20alahmad/My%20Web%20Sites/Site/Gram/Functions.htm) state the list of language functions, as follows: Apology, Agreement, Disagreement, Partial Agreement, Obligation, Intention, Displeasure, Advice, Persuasion, Late Advice, Concession, Congratulations, Prohibition, Suggestion, Responsibility, Certainity, Disapproval, Surprise, Disappointment, Clarification, Sympathy, Blame, Release from blame, Opinion, Obligation, Request, Anxiety, Pleasure, Want, Indifference, Refusal, Deduction & Conclusion, Preference.

According to (Newmark, 1988, pp. 39–44) devided language functions into six; First, expressive function – is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. Second, informative function is external situation, the fact of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. Third, vocative function – the readership, the addressee in term the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to ‘react’ in the way intended by the text. Next, aesthetic function – language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. Fifth, phatic function – used for maintaining friendly contact with the addressee rather than for imparting foreign information. The last, metalingual function – indicates a language ability to explain, name, and criticise its own features.  

8.             Mention all translation methods!

According to (Newmark, 1988, pp. 45–52) there are 7 methods in translation; Word-for-word translation this method often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or a difficult text as a pre-translation process. Literal translation, The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved. Faithful translation, A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It 'transfers' cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical 'abnormality' (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer. Semantic translation, Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sounds of the SL text, compromising on 'meaning' where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents. Adaptation, This is the 'freest' form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comediesl and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to theTL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have 'rescued1 period plays. Free translation, Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called 'intralingual translation*, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. Idiomatic translation, Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. Communicative translation, Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a wav that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

According to Larson (1984:15) cited in Hizbulah (2011) translation method is divided into two categories. First category is from-based or literal translation. Secondly, it is meaning based or idiomatic translation. By literal translations, he means, the translation faithfully follows the form of the SL. On the other hand, the idiomatic translation tries to convey the meaning intended by the SL writer in a natural form of the receptor language.

Larson (1984: 16) cited in Hizbulah (2011) then adds that in applying the literal translation, there is rarely a true literal translation. The methods spread in the continuum from very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, idiomatic, and unduly free. The continuum is drawn as follow:

Larson (1984: 16-18) cited in Hizbulah (2011) further explains:

1.    Very literal is an interlinear translation. For some purposes, it is desirable to reproduce the linguistic features of the source text, as for example, in a linguistic study of that language;

2.    Literal translation is a translation which its sounds like nonsense and has little communicative value. It may be very useful for the purposes related to the study of the source language, they are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are interested in the meaning of the source language text;

3.    Modified literal methods are a way to modify order and grammar of the source language in an acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language. However, the lexical items are translated literally.

4.    Inconsistent mixture mixes literal and idiomatic translation in the final draft of translation.

5.    Near idiomatic reproduces the meaning of the source language (that is the meaning intended by the original communicator) in receptor language without losing the natural form of the source language.

6.    Idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source language (that is the meaning intended by the original communicator) in the natural form of receptor language.

7.    The unduly free translation adds extraneous information, which is not stated in the source text. It changes the meaning of SL; it distorts the fact of the historical and cultural setting of the source text.

Prior to Newmark and Larson, Robet Holmes (1970) cited in Gentzler (1993: 91) mentions that there are four methods of translation. First method retains the form of the original. The second attempts to discern the function of the text in the receiving culture and seeks parallel function within the target language tradition. The third is content-derivative, taking the original meaning of the primary text and allowing it to develop into its own unique shape in the target language. The fourth deliberately retains minimal similarity for other purposes.

André Lefevere (1975) quoted in Gentzler (1993: 93) further enrich Holmes’ description. He states that there are seven methodologies which tend to govern the translation process –especially in the translation of poetry. They are:

1)    Phonemic translation, which attempts to reproduce the SL precisely in TL.

2)    Literal translation, which distorts the sense and the syntax of the original through word-for-word emphasis.

3)    Metrical translation, which reproduce the SL metre.

4)    Poetry into prose, which changes both of sense and syntax of the SL.

5)    Rhymed translation, where the translator enters into a double bondage of metre and rhyme.

6)    Blank verse translation. Again the restrictions imposed on the translator by the choice of structure are emphasized, although the greater accuracy and higher degree of literalness obtained are also noted.

7)    Interpretation. Interpret the theme and re-writes it to make the text easier for reception.

Several Indonesian experts of translation, such as Machali (2000: 50) and Widyamartaya (1989: 20) cited in Hizbulah (2011) notice that Newmark’s methods of translation are the clearest and it can be observed in a translation text. The use of translation methods depends on the translator needs. Whatever method he/she uses, the main point in translation is to carry messages in source language into the target language well.

9.             What is coherent and cohesive?

Refer to (Zheng, 2009), a coherent text is defined as a continuity of senses of the outcome of combining concepts and relations into a network composed of knowledge space centered around main topics. And the author maintains that in order to obtain the coherence of a target language text from a source text during the process of translation, a translator can utilize the following approaches: retention of the continuity of senses of a text; reconstruction of the target text for the purpose of continuity; coherence complement in translation and the extracting and foregrounding of topic sentences in translation. Coherence concerns the ways in which the components of the textual world, i.e., the configuration of concepts and relations which underlie the surface text, are mutually accessible and relevant. Thus coherence will be envisioned as the outcome of combining concepts and relations into a network composed of knowledge space centered on main topics. In order to obtain the coherence of a target language text from a source text during the process of translation, four solutions have been presented: retention of the continuity of senses of a text; reconstruction of the target text for the purpose of continuity; coherence complement in translation and the extracting and foregrounding of topic sentences in translation. In order to achieve coherence in the target text during the process of translation, topic sentences can be extracted and fore-grounded by the translator from a source text for the purpose of coherence in the target text. Cohesive markers have to reflect conceptual relations which make sense. The mere presence of cohesive markers cannot create a coherent text. A number of cohesive markers, the text is not supported by underlying semantic relations. This suggests that what establishes continuity of sense is the readers’ ability to recognize underlying semantic relations between various parts of a stretch of language. The main value of cohesive markers seems to be that they can be used to facilitate and possibly control the interpretation of underlying semantic relations‘. Cohesive devices in the ST have a guiding function for the source language readers. They guide the readers in interpreting ideas in the text, in connecting ideas with other ideas, and in connecting ideas to higher level global units for example, the relationship between a thesis and a substantiation in an argumentative text. In short, cohesive devices support and speed up the cognitive processes by which a reader constructs the overall meaning of linearly incoming textual information. The effects of the use of cohesive features in translation, on both the TT level of explicitness and on the TT‘s overt meanings, as compared to the ST. Cohesive ties do much more than provide a sense of continuity in a text. The choice involved in the types of cohesive markers used in a particular text can affect the texture as being loose‘ or dense‘ as well as the style and meaning of the text. All grammatical units – sentences, clauses, groups, words – are internally cohesive simply because they are structured. Structure is one means of expressing texture, so, cohesion within a text-texture depends on something other than structure. Our use of the term COHESION refers specifically to these non-structural text-forming relations. (Emphasis original). While cohesive ties do exist within a sentence, it is the inter-sentence cohesion that is significant, because that represents the variable aspect of cohesion, distinguishing one text from another.

10.         What is accepted translation?

Plan Ahead for Technical Translation

·                Investing a few hours of your time in the preparation of the technical translation project will pay off greatly. To avoid stress and headaches down the road, resist the urge to assign your text to the first company or translator who pops up in a search engine.

·                Define the Target Audience

     Where exactly will your text be read and by whom? Will your company’s widgets be sold in Latin America or Spain, in mainlandChinaorTaiwan? Is your document an assembly instruction for consumers or an occupational safety leaflet for employees in another country? Precise instructions on the target audience and reading level of your document can greatly influence the final quality of the translation.

·                Define the Purpose of the Text

     Related to the definition of the target audience, it is also important to clarify what the translated text is supposed to accomplish for your company. Is the text associated with your company’s brand or international sales? Will it be read often and critically? Will it be printed or read online?

·                Selection Criteria for Technical Translation

     Not unlike technical writing, technical translation is complex work that requires skill and experience. Accordingly, it has a price tag that must be budgeted for and an unusually low price quote should be a red flag.

11.         What is natural translation?

Natural Translators for bilinguals who’ve had no training, instruction or specific guidance at all in translating and so they do it intuitively and spontaneously. Since bilinguals usually come while still young under the influence of other people translating or are exposed to examples of translation, the best time to catch pure Natural Translators for study is in their early childhood. Once they go to school, it’s difficult to sift out the influences. However, they may be older.

According to (Lörscher, n.d.) defined natural translation as “the translation done by bilinguals in everyday circumstances and without special training for it.” Translation competence in the sense of natural translation is thus considered to be an aspect of bilingual competence. It is a natural phenomenon of bilinguals and must not be confused with translation competence as possessed by professional translators. The following three may be of special importance. First, even though bilinguals have competence in two languages these competences are usually not of exactly the same kind. They may be more competent for a particular topic in language A than in language B. Second, bilinguals often lack the meta-lingual and meta-cultural awareness necessary for rendering a source-language text effectively into a target-language and culture. And third, bilinguals’ competence in two languages does not necessarily include competence in transferring meanings and/or forms from one language into the other. Any natural linguistic competence, make it possible for an individual to express sense and/or connections of signs in different ways. The mediations of sense and/or signs can occur within the verbal sphere, between the verbal and the nonverbal spheres and between different nonverbal spheres. As soon as an individual has at least partially acquired modes of verbal and/or nonverbal behaviour, rudimentary mediations between them are possible. The sense of a natural translation, are characterized by a sense-oriented approach to translation.

(Darwish, 2003) state that if natural is the state of something characterized by spontaneity and freedom from artificiality, affectation, or inhibitions, then translation is not natural. The translator is neither aware nor capable of translating naturally between two languages unless he or she makes a conscious decision to switch into the translation mode and start the translation process. This switch is basically a recognition-priming operation that triggers the two language systems in juxtaposition to one another in readiness for translation and brings the translator online.

12.         What is transference?

In formal, transference can be define as the process of moving something or someone from one place, position, etc, to another. According to (Newmark, 1988, pp. 81, 82) “Tranference is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure”. He believes that only cultural objects or concepts related to a small group should be transferred (ibid). When the translators face the following cases, they should use the method of transference: name of all living or dead people, geographical names, name of the periodical and newspapers, titles of untranslated literary works, plays, films; names of private companies and institutions, names of public institutions; street names and addresses. Newmark believes that the translator uses this method to “attract the reader or to give a sense of intimacy between the text and the reader”.

According to Jensen (2008) Transference: transferal of a word or expression from the source language/text directly into the target text without translating it at all. People's names and place names and the like are usually transferred, except in those cases where a conventional translation exists. Transference is also the first step in the process of one language acquiring loan words from another.

13.         What is the role of componential analysis in translation?

Componential analysis (CA) in translation is not the same as componential analysis in linguistics; in linguistics it means analyzing or splitting up the various senses of a word into sense-components which may or may not be universal; in translation, the basic process is to compare a SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning, but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components- Normally the SL word has a more specific meaning than the TL word, and the translator has to add one or two TL sense components to the corresponding TL word in order to produce a closer approximation of meaning; thus, sometimes: stiirzen - 'to fair (+ suddenly ■+- heavily + refers to an important person or entity) dance = 'slender' (+ long -h elegant -f refers to object) portiere = 'door1 (4- of railway carriage or car, therefore with window) pruneau ' = 'bullet1 (+ slang) pleurs — 'tears' (+ defined* style) 'gawky1 — 'gauche (~f maladroit + plaisant) The sense components of a lexical unit may be referential and/or pragmatic, Comprehensively, a SL word may be distinguished from a TL word on the one hand in the composition, shape, size and function of its referent; on the other in its cultural context and connotations, as welt as in its currency, period, social class usage and its degree of formality, emotional tone, generality or technicality and, finally, in the pragmatic effect of its sound composition, e.g., onomatopoeia or repetitive phonemes or suggestive symbolical consonantal clusters. A word like *chairT (chaise, Stuhf) has only referential components, being pragmatically 'neutral'; but 'jolly1 in 'jolly good' is mainly pragmatic, a slight, middle-class intensifies which can only be over-translated in French (drdlemem) and under-translated in German {ganz, vielleichi) - both languages missing the connotation of social class.

Sense components have been variously called semantic features or semes. (Do not confuse a seme with a single complete sense of a word, which you can call a sememe if you like.) Any SL and TL word pair that you are analysing will show some common and some distinguishing or diagnostic components. Many words also have supplementary, figurative or technical components which become diagnostic in certain contexts; thus for 'mule1 - 'stubborn', 'obstinate'. In 'spinning machine1 the technical replaces the other components. The more common components are sometimes contrasted at two ends of a scale: e,g. '± young'/± long', '± loud', etc. They are then grouped in the category 'dimension', e.g./age', 'length', 'sound', etc. or, rather artificially, *± having legs', '± made of wool', etc. In translation, the polar *±J distinction is only useful when a SL lexical set is being distinguished through componential analysis:

Material (silk/cotton, etc)

Lengih

Finish

Softness

velvet plush velours

+         -j-

-Y-

-j-

-

In CA, the various single senses (sememes) of a word have to be analysed separately, although such senses are usually related. A translator may find an extra-con textual componential analysis useful, either if the relevant SL word is more or less context-free, or to establish the semantic limits of a SL word (fasiueux will stretch to 'luxurious', perhaps, but not to 'lavish1). More commonly, he will analyse a word contextually, thereby dealing only with one sense of the word, and thereby restricting its TL sense-components, normally, he carries out a CA only on a word of some significance in the TL text which cannot adequately be translated one to one. If the word is not important, he will normally make do with a TL synonym (e.g., 'kind', gentH^gUtig, etc.). CAs in linguistics are often presented as tree diagrams (for single wordsj, matrix diagrams or scalar diagrams. In translation, matrix diagrams are useful for SL lexical sets and scalar diagrams for SL lexical series, but most CAs can be presented as equations (as above) or performed mentally. Parallel tree diagrams are useful in showing up lexical gaps. (See Figures 5-8.) If one thinks of translation as an ordered rearrangement of sense components that are common to two language communities (such a definition can hardly be challenged) then the value of CA in identifying these components becomes clear. Further, CA attempts to go far beyond bilingual dictionaries; all CAs are based on SL monolingual dictionaries, the evidence of SL informants, and the translator's understanding of his own language. The only purpose ofCA in translation is to achieve the greatest possible accuracy, inevitably at the expense ofeconomy. However, it is a technique that is more precise and limiting than paraphrase or definition. In practice, you are picking out characteristics in their order of importance.

14.         Define these terms:

!  Neologism

Neologisms are understood as whether new words naming newly invented or imported objects or processes, or new expressions that suddenly fill one of the innumerable gaps in a language's resources for handling human thought and feeling at some level of formality.

According to (Newmark, 1988); (KARAKOÇ, n.d.) Neologism can be defined as existing lexical units that acquire a new sense and newly created lexical items. Accordingly, for a term/phrase to be considered as a neologism, it must have recently appeared, it must have been lacking in any dictionary, it must not be formally (e.g. morphological, graphic, phonetic) or semantically stable and it must be perceived as a new unit by the speakers of that language. Neologisms are perhaps the non-literary and the professional translators‟ biggest problem. Newmark also defines neologisms as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense.

!  Acronym

According to Alison (2011) explain that The translation of acronyms presents unique challenges to translators, who are often charged with the tricky task of piecing together both well-known and unfamiliar abbreviations in a way that readers will understand. While some acronyms are universally recognizable, lesser-known acronyms require some extra explanation on the translator’s part. The translation of an acronym has four main components: the Source Acronym, the Expansion of the Source Acronym, the Target Acronym, and the Expansion of the Target Acronym. Not every term which has an acronym in one language is an acronym in another.

Scott (2012) define an abbreviation is the formation of a word from the first letter of each of the words that are part of it. Acronyms, however, are abbreviations that are pronounced as a word (e.g. “sonar” or “NATO”). Translate the name and then place in parentheses: the acronym followed by “for its acronym in [language of origin]” or the abbreviation followed by an explanation in English. Acronyms related to medicine (those that refer to diseases, compound names of body parts, etc.) also have a default translation: TC = CT (computed tomography), SIDA = AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

Acronyms are an increasingly common feature of all non-literary texts, for reasons of brevity or euphony, and often to give the referent an artificial prestige to rouse people to find out what the letters stand for. In science the letters are occasionally joined up and become internationalisms ('laser,' 'maser'), requiring analysis only for a less educated TL readership.

The words radar and laser are acronyms: each of the letters that spell the word is the first letter (or letters) of some other complete word. For example, radar derives from radio detecting and ranging and laser derives from light amplification (by) stimulated emission (of) radiation. It is important to note that even though such words are originally created as acronyms, speakers quickly forget such origins and the acronyms become new independent words. Acronyms formation is just one of the abbreviation, or shortening, processes that are increasingly common in American society (and perhaps internationally) as a means of word formation.

Acronym a word formed from the initial letters or groups of letters of words in a set phrase or series of words and pronounced as a separate word, as Wac from Women's Army Corps, OPEC from Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or loran from long-range navigation. A set of initials representing a name, organization, or the like, with each letter pronounced separately; an initialism. Acronym word (as NATO, radar, or laser) formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts or major parts of a compound term; also:  an abbreviation (as FBI) formed from initial letters.

!  Technical translation

According to (Zethsen, 1999), Technical texts are generally considered to be informative, objective and devoid of expressive features. Technical texts are defined on the basis of subject-matter, terminology and a number of typical syntactic features such as: nominalisation, heavy pre- and postmodifications, extensive use of passives, use of third person, long and complex sentences. In addition, technical texts are described as being almost totally dominated by the informative function. Technical texts is a factual and objective engineer who is not particularly aware of or interested in the target group of his text and whose only aim is to transmit the technical information of the text in question. Technical texts and technical writers are bound to influence the way we perceive.

Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers (owner's manuals, user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information. While the presence of specialized terminology is a feature of technical texts, specialized terminology alone is not sufficient for classifying a text as "technical" since numerous disciplines and subjects which are not "technical" possess what can be regarded as specialized terminology. Technical translation covers the translation of many kinds of specialized texts and requires a high level of subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant terminology and writing conventions.

The importance of consistent terminology in technical translation, for example in patents, as well as the highly formulaic and repetitive nature of technical writing makes computer-assisted translation using translation memories and terminology databases especially appropriate. In his book Technical Translation Jody Byrne argues that technical translation is closely related to technical communication and that it can benefit from research in this and other areas such as usability and cognitive psychology.

In addition to making texts with technical jargon accessible for a wider ranging audience, technical translation also involves linguistic features of translating technological texts from one language to another. Translation as a whole is a balance of art and science influenced by both theory and practice. Having knowledge of both the linguistic features as well as the aesthetic features of translation applies directly to the field of technical translation.

!  Variety

A varieties, or sub-languages, may be classified in more than one way. The suggested classes include idiolects, dialects, registers, styles and modes, as varieties of any living language. Another view is that of Pit Coder (1973), who suggest dialects, idiolects, and sociolects. Quirk (1972) proposes region, education, subject matter, media and attitude as possible bases of language variety classification of English in particular. He recognizes dialects as varieties distinguished according to geographical dispersion, and standard and substandard English as varieties within different ranges of education and social position. Language registers are recognized as varieties classified according to subject matter.

According to (Nida & Taber, 1969), one of the most serious problems that face a translator is to properly match the stylistic levels of two different languages. For example, the Bible translator may not select a level of language which is too high for making the message accessible to the people to whom it is addressed. At the same time, the level chosen should not be socially low, because it would then debase the content. In some parts of the Arab world, colloquial forms of the language are quite unacceptable for the translation of the Bible, although they might be better and more widely understood by people than classical Arabic.

On the other hand, the translator has to select not only the appropriate style for the Bible in general, but for the particular biblical style he is translating, since the Bible contains more than just one style. Translating in fact involves more than finding corresponding words between two languages. Words are only minor elements in the total linguistic discourse. The particular tone of the passage, i.e, the style of the language, may have more impact on the audience than the actual words. Indeed, style and tone are of great, almost fundamental, importance when we translate literary texts rather than scientific ones. If the aim of the source language text is only to convey a piece of information or some instructions to the reader or audience, the referential meaning of words becomes quite significant, and the effect of style and/or tone diminishes.

!  Poetry

Poetry in Translation, a unit created by Queens teacher Carol McCarthy, draws on the unique abilities of her multicultural classroom. In her introductory lesson plan, Carol calls upon her students to investigate poetry through the lens of their individual cultural backgrounds. Students translate the work of poets from their native country or ethnic heritage, then write and translate their own poems. Students probe poetry in translation in other lessons as well, including “Translating Poets of the Holocaust Era," “Haiku," “Women in Poetry," and a comparative lesson focusing on two translations of Beowulf. Against this backdrop, Carol employs a series of classroom learning activities and Internet research that helps each student to find their place in a poetic tradition.

B.   Translate the text into English

Dark Period of Egypt

          Why the Egyptian former President Muhammad Mursi was verdict to death, while the previous former of Egyptian namely President Hosni Mubarak is verdict only 3 years in prison? That question, which at first appears after hearing the news from Egypt concerning accusation imposed criminal court in Cairo on Saturday (16/5) and Sunday (17/5). Two former presidents were claimed to a weight penalty that is very much different. Although Mursi in a previous court hearing, for different cases, already sentenced to 20 years in prison.

          Mursi severely punished for escaping from prison Wadi al-Natroum when rolled Egyptian revolution. The court stated that Mursi escape with the help of the people of Hamas. Hence, the court also handed down death sentences on approximately 70 Palestinians (more than 100 people were sentenced to death along with Mursi). Although the verdict is still subject to approval from the High Priest, which is the highest Sunni Muslim authority in Egypt.

          Meanwhile, Mubarak and his two children-who ruled for 30 years in Egypt, "only" accused of corruption. Cases of corruption are often referred to as a case of "presidential palace". In that case, Mubarak and his two sons accused of corruption of state money worth millions of dollars. Therefore, they are fined 16.3 million dollars and 2.7 million dollars to restore, the money belongs to the state.

(Taken from Kompas, May 19, 2015)

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